ABSTRACT
Cancer cell dysregulations result in the abnormal regulation of cellular metabolic pathways. By simulating this metabolic reprogramming using constraint-based modeling approaches, oncogenes can be predicted, and this knowledge can be used in prognosis and treatment. We introduced a trilevel optimization problem describing metabolic reprogramming for inferring oncogenes. First, this study used RNA-Seq expression data of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) and lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) samples and their healthy counterparts to reconstruct tissue-specific genome-scale metabolic models and subsequently build the flux distribution pattern that provided a measure for the oncogene inference optimization problem for determining tumorigenesis. The platform detected 45 genes for LUAD and 84 genes for LUSC that lead to tumorigenesis. A high level of differentially expressed genes was not an essential factor for determining tumorigenesis. The platform indicated that pyruvate kinase (PKM), a well-known oncogene with a low level of differential gene expression in LUAD and LUSC, had the highest fitness among the predicted oncogenes based on computation. By contrast, pyruvate kinase L/R (PKLR), an isozyme of PKM, had a high level of differential gene expression in both cancers. Phosphatidylserine synthase 1 (PTDSS1), an oncogene in LUAD, was inferred to have a low level of differential gene expression, and overexpression could significantly reduce survival probability. According to the factor analysis, PTDSS1 characteristics were close to those of the template, but they were unobvious in LUSC. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) has recently garnered widespread interest as the SARS-CoV-2 virus receptor. Moreover, we determined that ACE2 is an oncogene of LUSC but not of LUAD. The platform developed in this study can identify oncogenes with low levels of differential expression and be used to identify potential therapeutic targets for cancer treatment.